Socioeconomic crisis and rehabilitation reality for climate displaced people in the Southeastern coast of Bangladesh

Selection of the Study Areas

The Southeastern coastal area enriched with numbers of important and vulnerable islands which have a historical record of displacement and migration over the long time. The authors considered the record of Climate susceptibility, displacement rates, land erosion, recurrent disaster for selection of the study areas. The authors selected Kutubdia Island (Subdistrict) and Banshkhali subdistrict as mainland for the study. Kutubdia Island belongs to the Cox’s Bazar District, and Banshkhali belongs to the Chittagong District [Figure 1]. People are living in the areas which are the most cyclonic disaster and erosion-affected area in Bangladesh.

Figure 1: Geographical location of the study areas

Data Collection

Both qualitative and quantitative approaches have been applied. Qualitative data have been collected through participant observation, key informant interviews (KIIs), and focus group discussion (FGD) checklists, besides quantitative data were gathered through questionnaire survey method, respectively. A total of 10 KIIs were interviewed, among which 8 KIIs were conducted in displaced areas and 2 KIIs were done in destination areas. KII have been conducted with 2 Cox’s Bazar and Chittagong Additional Deputy Commissioner ( Revenue), 2 Union Parishad Chairman, 2 with Journalists, 2 with Upazila Chairman and 2 Upazila Nirbahi Officer of Banshkhali and Kutubdia upazila respectively. A total of 6 FGDs were completed, among which 4 FGDs were conducted in displaced areas and 2 were conducted in destination areas separately.

A semi-structured questionnaire has been applied for quantitative data collection at the household level of displaced people from displaced and destination places. Sampling frame has been developed after collection of total population in both the study areas. The sample size has been chosen in line with a statistical formula.[16]

Where, n₀ denoted the desired sample size; z = standard normal deviate usually set at 1.96, which corresponds to the 95% confidence level (1.96); p = assumes proportion in the target population estimated to have a particular characteristic (0.50); q = proportion of the estimation of population (1-p = 0.50); and d = allowable maximum error in estimating a population proportion (0.05), respectively.

Besides, the simple random sampling technique has been adapted for successfully operating of 410 questionnaires at a household’s level of the displaced people [Table 1].

Table 1: Distributed of population on the two selected study areas

The representative sample size has been distributed on the statistical way with the help of following formula:

Where, Nj = the sample size; N = total population size, (N = ni + nii + niii +……+ nn); Ni = population size of the study area, and n= desired sample size separately.

Meaningful data have been edited, coded, classified, and tabulated the sequential manner. Qualitative data have been examined with the help of two theories such as “grounded theory” and “narrative analysis,” besides quantitative data were interpreted with the help of two analyses such as “statistical analysis”’ and “analytical analysis,” respectively. Moreover, statistical and analytical analysis of the study was done with the help of statistical techniques, especially Statistical Package for the Social Science: version-16 and various statistical tools such as tables, charts, graphs, diagrams, figures, and photographs.

Vulnerability Analysis for Displaced People

The IPCC suggests that vulnerability is characterized as a function of three dimensions - exposures, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity, as follows:[17]

Vulnerability = f (Exposure; sensitivity; adaptive capacity).

Vulnerability is a positive function of the system’s exposure and sensitivity and a negative function of the adaptive capacity. The authors applied livelihood vulnerability index (LVI)[18] and the climate vulnerability index (CVI) to measure and compare livelihood vulnerability in the context of the coastal area inhabitants’ living condition.[19] The LVI approach is preferred over the sustainable livelihood approach, which only considered five types of household assets - natural, social, financial, physical, and human capital - but failed to integrate the issues of sensitivity and adaptive capacity to climate change.[20] The present study develops a weighted balance integrated approach to the calculation of the LVI and CVI that incorporates local and indigenous knowledge into the selection of indicators.

Chi-square (χ2) test

For statistical analysis of probability sampling or justification of hypothesis, the research has been carefully applied Chi-square test. Following equation has been used for the determination of the Chi-square test.

Where O denotes the total number of observation or sample size or observation value and E denotes the expected value.

For statistical interpretation, the null hypotheses (H_o) were adopted for determining the relationship between “resettlement program and people’s displacement” in the coastal area of Bangladesh. For justification of the hypothesis, the study has been applied nine types of indicators such as monthly income, types of occupation, pattern of housing, source of drinking water, sanitation condition, health-care facilities, children’s education, the nature of security, and social and cultural harmony. The indicators have been selected on the basis of the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Finance Division, Bangladesh Bank, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, 2017. Along with, for data authenticity and accuracy, age structure has been discussed.

Changing Pattern of Livelihood for Climate Displaced people

After the result datasheet has been found, according to the desired questionnaire, then the authors applied Likert scale method[21] that is common rating format for surveys. Comparative study of displaced peoples’ livelihood scenario and living status between before and after displacement has been figured out by Likert scale method, and the format of a typical five-level Likert item is as follows:

1 - Strongly disagree, 2 - Disagree, 3 - Neutral, 4 - Agree, and 5 - Strongly agree.

Based on the result of respondent statement, the authors rank the weight ranking in three categories such as:

Strongly Dissatisfied - Below 3, Neutral - 3.00, and Strongly Satisfied - Above 3

Livelihood Assets and Activities

A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (stores, resources, claims, and access), and activities required for a means of living: A livelihood is sustainable which can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation (Chambers and Conway, 1991). By utilizing five types of assets, coastal community survives. The authors found the different types of assets with percentage and livelihood activities in the study areas which are shown in Table 3. In the study areas, people were found engaged in most common income-generating activities including agriculture, cattle rearing, fishing, rickshaw pulling, and day laboring and some were involved with business.

Table 3: Livelihood assets and activities in the study areas

Origin and Destination for Displaced People

In Bangladesh, the vast majority of these people has been displaced domestically - not across international borders - presenting the government with enormous challenges, particularly when it comes to finding places to live and work for those who have been displaced. There are very few resettlement program for landless/homeless people in Bangladesh where 10% people rehabilitated and for that reason mass people has been forced to displaced in the south-eastern coast of Bangladesh. Climate Displaced people mostly receiving short term relief from the Government and other organization.[22,23] Unfortunately, after displacement, people go to the outer side of their Upazila in Kutubdia area, besides people stay in their own Upazila in Banshkhali area, respectively [Table 4].

Table 4: The origin and destination for displaced people in the study area

LVI for Displaced People

From the present study, it is found that households in Kutubdia and Banshkhali were found to be vulnerable to climate change issues. However, the overall LVI of 0.540 was a little higher for the coastal island compared to that of the mainland households (0.490) [Table 5]. This indicates that livelihood of island dwellers is more vulnerable than mainland households. This is happened because Kutubdia Island has a long history of coastal erosion and displacement problem. The study found a little difference in the estimated index value for different sociodemographic profiles for the study sites. The index value of “livelihood strategies” and “social network” was not differing much across sites which were 0.410 and 0.370 for island dwellers and 0.425 and 0.340 for mainland households, respectively. On the other hand, the index value of “food,” “water,” and “health” was the highest for mainland dwellers rather than island dwellers. On the other hand, the index value for “natural disasters” and climate variability was found highest for island dwellers.

Table 5: Indexed value of major components and sub-components comprising the livelihood vulnerability index

The indexed value for social network differed slightly across sites. The indexed values for access to “food” and “water” were the highest for char dwellers with the value of 0.757 and 0.287, respectively, as against 0.628 and 0.188 for river-bank households; these findings are contextualized below. The indexed value for natural disasters was the highest for char dwellers due to their low-lying topography and vulnerability to floods, while climate variability was found to impact on both communities equally [Table 5].

CVI for Displaced People

The various dimensions of vulnerability are presented in Table 6. The CVI was 1.452 and 0.950 for island dwellers and mainland areas of Southeastern and Western coastal areas, respectively, which indicates that households in both the areas are vulnerable to climate change and variability [Table 6].

Table 6: Climate vulnerability index for island dwellers and mainland dwellers in study area

The study households are not only vulnerable to cyclone, tidal flood, and coastal erosion but also to other climatic hazards. The climate change vulnerability index value of the three dimensions - adaptive capacity, sensitivity, and exposure - contributed to the CVI of the coastal inhabitants’ households. It is noticeable from the results in Table that there is a variation in the level of adaptive capacity, sensitivity, and exposure across the study sites. The highest sensitivity and exposure value contributed to the highest CVI for island dwellers. However, higher value of CVI in both the sites indicates their higher vulnerability to climate change. The indicators of “food,” “water,” and “health” were comparatively higher for island dwellers than for mainland households. The coastal mainland area households are relatively less vulnerable due to many reasons, such as higher opportunities to diversify their income sources, low dependency ratio, higher level of education, better economic condition, and being better connected to transport and other services. On the other hand, island dwellers frequently suffered natural disaster and they have experienced for coping with disaster vulnerabilities and habituated than mainland dwellers. The above discussions indicate that access to “food,” “water,” and “health” facilities is the main drivers of the livelihood vulnerability of the study households.

Disasters vary considerably in their potential to instigate displacement.[24,25] Field survey illustrated that, due to frequent natural disasters, almost all island dwellers have experiences of three types of displacement in their life which are (1) temporary displacement, (2) permanent local displacement, and (3) permanent internal displacement.

Livelihood Cycle of Climate Displaced People

A vicious circle of land access, food security and poverty, loss of land due to cyclone, tidal surges, and coastal erosion becomes the age-old problem in Bangladesh, causing the loss of farmland and development opportunities. Health and well-being are a significant enabler for efficient farm and non-farm activities and assess the individuals’ and households’ ability to achieve their livelihood objectives.[22] From the study, it is found that undernutrition due to insufficient food, inadequate intake of food calories, and lack of health facilities influence on an individual’s ability to perform income- and non-income-related activities ultimately increasing vulnerability and causing a burden on the household and society of Kutubdia and Banshkhali. This research found that the livelihood conditions of the households of the study areas tend to follow a vicious circle from low livelihood opportunities to increasing poverty [Figure 2].

Figure 2: Livelihood cycle for climate displaced people

This is happened due to their existing poor livelihood conditions and their opportunities to earn income become limited. This limited income also has influence in the impacts on household food intake since the main source of household food supply is either from domestic production or market purchases. Land loss due to coastal erosion reduces the food production and income generation, and low income reduces household purchasing power. Lack of inadequate food intake influence negatively on manual labor coupled with limited facilities to access to health services and low affordability of medicines makes household members prone to disease in the study areas. Poor health and lack of access to health facilities limit off-farm activities and further reduce income-generating potential, forming a vicious circle of poverty, and malnutrition for climate displaced people.

Relation of Socioeconomic Conditions of Displaced People

When people are temporarily displaced during any disaster, they are able to return their home for a certain period if their homesteads remain safe. However, if they lost their homestead, they have to find the alternative shelter to survive. People’s displacement in Kutubdia and Banshkhali is a common phenomenon as a result of climate change-induced disasters. People of these two Upazilas are moving here and there after displacement to find the shelter and livelihood to survive. Often they are to start everything newly in new place such as shelter, environment, livelihood, and lifestyle, which put them very challenging situation. Table 7 explores the relation between socioeconomic condition of displaced people in the pre- and post-displacement situation of both the study areas. To analyze the data more strictly, an attempt has been made to statistically interpret the relationship between socioeconomic condition of displaced people in the pre- and post-displacement situation. For this aspect, a null hypothesis is as follows, H_o: There are no changes of socioeconomic condition of displaced people comparing with before and after displacement situation.

Table 7: Socioeconomic condition of displaced people comparing with before and after displacement situation

Chi-square test has been performed after cross-tabulation. Table 3 shows the results with the levels of significance for the Chi-square test. Rejecting the null hypothesis, there is no association or significant difference in frequency occurring socioeconomic condition between the pre- and post-displacement. The Chi-square test results indicate that a significant difference exists in socioeconomic condition between the pre- and post-displacement in both the study areas. Table 7 illustrates that monthly income, types of occupation, pattern of housing, sanitation condition, children educational status (study area-II), and the nature of security were significant (Hypothesis (H_o) = Cal_value Tab_value = Significant) in the pre- and post-displacement in both the study areas. As a result, the null hypothesis (H_o) was rejected and the alternative hypothesis (H₁) was accepted. Besides, source of drinking water and health-care facilities was non-significant (Hypothesis (H_o) = Cal_value Tab_value = Non-significant) in the pre- and post-displacement in both the study areas. As a result, the null hypothesis (H_o) was accepted and the alternative hypothesis (H₁) was rejected.

From the study, it is found that changing pattern of monthly income of climate displaced people in pre- and post-displacement situations was significant [Table 7]. Although their income level positively changed from pre- to post-displacement situation, satisfaction level was low compared to the pre-displacement situation in both the study areas. Displaced people claimed that, although their monthly income increased, it was insufficient in their families.

Types of occupations of climate displaced people in the pre- and post-displacement situation were significant [Table 7]. Although in the pre-displacement situation, villagers were engaged in one or more types of occupation at a time and nobody was unemployed. However, unemployment problem was a common scenario in the post-displacement situation. In original areas, people met traditional occupations which were practiced from their father and grandfather, besides brotherhood relation existed between occupation owners and workers. As a result, nobody was left unemployed. Furthermore, in destination areas, displaced people faced new or unknown environment where none of them were known. As a result, they could not get themselves engaged in new occupations easily. Finally, they faced hardcore poverty, eventually engaged in different informal activities.

Housing condition of climate displaced people in the pre- and post-displacement situation was significant [Table 7]. The housing pattern did not change in the pre- and post-displacement situation in the study area- I, though people move beyond their island or Upazila after a certain period to find the shelter and livelihood. Besides, in the Banskhali, the house pattern was built with local materials, particularly straw build house, earthen wall and tin, earthen roof and straw, “Gool Pata,” and so on. As a result, their housing pattern did not change in pre- and post-displacement areas.

Sources of drinking water of climate displaced people in the pre- and post-displacement situation were non-significant [Table 7]. Hence, the same proportions of drinking water sources and their satisfaction level were non-significant of null hypothesis. In Banskhali area, after displacement, most of the villagers did not go out of their locality. They rebuilt their house on polder/embankment in the same village; as a result, their drinking water sources were the same.

Sanitation condition in the pre- and post-displacement situations of the displaced people was significant [Table 7]. In the study area-I, displaced people used open place and open toilet and also few portions were used hygienic toilet for sanitation purposes in the pre-displacement situation. Besides, most of displaced people were used hygienic toilet and most of them used the open toilet in the post-displacement situation. In the study area-II, displaced people used the open place along with hygienic toilet and the situation did not change among pre- and post-displaced situations.

Health-care facilities of climate displaced people in the pre- and post-displacement situation were non-significant [Table 7]. In the study area-I, villagers received health-care services from Polli Doctor in the pre-displacement situation. Large proportions of displaced people received health-care services from local pharmacy, Polli Doctor, union health-care center, and government medical in the post-displacement situation. In Banskhali area (pre- and post-situation), displaced villagers received health care from the Polli Doctor in pre- and post-displacement situations. Health-care facilities were almost the same as well as their satisfaction level in both the study areas.

In Kutubdia area, children’s education of climate displaced people in the pre- and post-displacement situation was non-significant, beside it was significantly in a Banskhali area [Table 7]. In both the study areas, the children’s education of displaced people received from government educational institution in pre- and post-displacement situations. After displacement, guardian or displaced people were not interested to provide child education in both the areas. The security condition of climate displaced people in the pre- and post-displacement situation was significant [Table 7]. In Kutubdia areas, villager only felt risk of natural disaster in the pre-displacement situation. However, in the post-displacement situation, displaced people felt not only risk of natural disaster but also local political harassment and gangster/muscle man problem. In Banshkhali area, villagers only felt the risk of natural disaster in the pre-displacement situation. However, in the post-displacement situation, displaced people felt not only the risk of natural disaster but also local political harassment.

The social and cultural harmony in the pre- and post-displacement situation was significant [Table 7]. After displacement in both the study areas, displaced people were facing a lot of negative things such as specified by the society, social stratification, local political and musclemen violence, and economic crisis. This is happened because displaced people are new in the new area and for that local community not trust them, they are facing insecurity, lost social and cultural harmony. As the lifestyle of the displaced people is very different from the local settlers, they are not accepted so easily in the community. Displaced people are deprived of their rights, dominated by the local people, threatened and afraid, and victimized for their marriageable offspring. They often faced an identity crisis as well. Local people tend to show unwilling behavior when the displaced people sent their children for education and also they were deprived of basic and urban amenities.

Proper Rehabilitation Practices in Coastal Area of Bangladesh

This study strongly prescribed the “Community Based Rehabilitation Program” for displaced people in the coastal areas of Bangladesh. This study strongly recommended non-specialized rehabilitation program, especially “Community based Rehabilitation Program,” which is strongly recommended in this research; however, rehabilitation programs such as “Gucchogram,” “Ashroyon,” “Abason,” and “Adrasha Village” are discouraged. The existing rehabilitation program has been accelerated a lot of negative things such as displaced people specified the society, create social stratification, built mythological ideas, facing local political and mussel man violence, facing economic crisis because nobody trust him, feeling psychological stress, loss of social, cultural norms and value, and so on. Displaced people are deprived from their rights, dominated by the local people, threatened and afraid, and victimized for their marriageable off-springs. They often face identity crisis as well. Local people tend to show unwilling behavior when the displaced people send their children for education. They are deprived of basic and urban amenities.[2] This rehabilitation program is recommended for the displaced people to rehabilitate in a community so that they can be known and create their legal representative and welfare committee. This rehabilitated area should be safe and stay beside from other functional areas. Thus, following approaches are mentioned: The holistic approach has been divided into two categories such as “top-bottom” and –“bottom-up” approaches [Figure 3].

Figure 3: Holistic Approach for ensuring the “community based rehabilitation program”

There are four stages or steps of proper rehabilitation of displaced people in Bangladesh such as survey of displaced people, selection of target people, exploration for finalization of appropriate land and finally legal processing of land and housing. These process have been required for integrated rehabilitation process for climate displaced people in Bangladesh.